Cereal foods are the major source of betaine in the Western diet

Betaine and its precursor choline are important components of one-carbon metabolism, remethylating homocysteine into methionine and providing methyl groups for DNA methylation. Cereals are the main source of betaine in the diet, though there is little literature available on the content of betaine in cereal products, nor on betaine intake from cereals. Betaine and free-choline concentrations were measured by liquid-chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry in a wide range of commercially available cereal foods and cereal fractions. Whole grain wheat and related fractions were the best overall common source of betaine, while the pseudocereal quinoa had the highest amount of betaine measured (3900mug/g). Based on estimates of dietary intake data cereal foods provide approximately 60-67% of betaine in Western diets, and 20-40% of betaine in South-East Asian diets. Average intake of betaine was 131mg/d, well below those used in intervention studies using betaine to lower blood homocysteine.

Ross, A.B., A. Zangger, and S.P. Guiraud, Cereal foods are the major source of betaine in the Western diet - Analysis of betaine and free choline in cereal foods and updated assessments of betaine intake. Food Chem, 2014. 145C: p. 859-865

Thermal and refining processes, not fermentation, tend to reduce lipotropic capacity of plant-based foods

Plant-based foods (PBF) are relevant and diversified sources of lipotropes, which are compounds preventing excess hepatic fat deposits. In a first study, we defined the lipotropic capacity (LC, %) of raw PBF as the means of 8 lipotrope densities (LD, mg/100 kcal), each expressed relative to that of a reference food ranking the highest considering its mean 8 LD ranks (LCraw asparagus = 100%) (A. Fardet, J.-F. Martin and J. M. Chardigny, J. Food Comp. Anal., 2011, DOI: 10.1016/j.jfca.2011.1003.1013). We showed that vegetables appeared as the best source of lipotropes on a 100 kcal-basis compared to legumes, cereals, fruits and nuts. The main objective of this second study was to quantify the effect of processing on LD and LC of raw PBF based on lipotrope contents collected in a USDA (United State Department of Agriculture) database and the literature, i.e. betaine, choline, myo-inositol, methionine, magnesium, niacin, pantothenic acid and folate contents. Choline and betaine densities were not significantly affected by processing while methionine and lipotropic micronutrient densities were significantly decreased, especially for magnesium, pantothenate and folates. Myo-inositol density decreases were insignificant due to lower product number resulting from limited literature data. Lipotropic micronutrient densities were more affected by processing than other densities. Fermentations increased betaine (median change of +32%) and choline (+34%) densities. Canning and boiling vegetables increased choline densities (+26%). Globally, processing significantly reduced LC by 20%, fermentations being less drastic (median change of −5%) than refining (−33%) and thermal treatments (−16%). More specifically, canning increased LC of beetroot (536 vs 390%) and common bean (40 vs 36%) as fermentation towards LC grape (14 vs 7% for wine). Results were then mainly discussed based on percentages of lipotrope content changes on a dry-weight basis. Results of this study also showed that the LC is quite a relevant index to estimate effect of processing on lipotropic potential of PBF.

Fardet, A., J.F. Martin, and J.M. Chardigny, Thermal and refining processes, not fermentation, tend to reduce lipotropic capacity of plant-based foods. Food Funct, 2011. 2(8): p. 483-504.

Betaine content of cereal products

LC-MS/MS analysis was used to analyze 47 plasma samples, 32 cereal flours and cereal fractions, and 51 cereal products.

Whole-grain wheat and rye flours, and products based on these were the best whole cereal sources of betaine (747-1508 mug/g) and to a lesser extent choline (76-159 mug/g), while the bran fraction contained the highest concentrations of betaine and free-choline (2350-2899 mug/g and 366-384 mug/g respectively). Refined wheat flour and products contained lower concentrations, while rice and maize contained only very low and no detectable amounts of betaine respectively (0-10 mug/g), and low amounts of free-choline (<31 mug/g).

These results were mirrored in cereal products analyzed, with whole-grain wheat or rye-based cereal products having the highest concentrations of the two metabolites. Plasma concentrations for betaine and free-choline in a group of 47 subjects ranged from 15.2-66.3 and 9.8-18.5 mumol/L respectively, within the range of previous reports. This LC-MS/MS method can be used to rapidly and sensitively quantify betaine and free-choline in plasma and cereal products.

Whole-grain cereal products and products containing cereal bran appear to be excellent dietary sources of betaine and free-choline.

Bruce et al (2010). "Quantitative Measurement of Betaine and Free Choline in Plasma, Cereals and Cereal Products by Isotope Dilution LC-MS/MS." J Agric Food Chem. Epub Jan 26

Plasma betaine increases upon intake of high-fiber rye buns

An NMR-based metabonomic study explored the biochemical effects of a rye based fiber-rich diet in hypercholesterolemic pigs.

The pigs were fed high-fat, high-cholesterol rye- (n = 9) or wheat- (n = 8) based buns with similar levels of dietary fiber for 9-10 wk. Fasting plasma samples were collected 2 days before and after 8 and 12 days on the experimental diets, while postprandial samples taken after 58-67 days, and 1H NMR spectra were acquired on these.

The NMR spectra demonstrated a high intensity for the spectral region at 3.29 ppm in the rye diet. The 3.29 ppm signal is ascribed to N(CH3)3 protons in betaine, which may be an important contributor to the health promoting effects of rye.

Bertram et al (2009). "NMR-based metabonomics reveals that plasma betaine increases upon intake of high-fiber rye buns in hypercholesterolemic pigs." Mol Nutr Food Res. epub 14 July 2009

Characterization of industrial rye and wheat brans

Six different rye brans from Sweden, Denmark and Finland were analysed and compared with two wheat brans regarding colour, particle size distribution, microscopic structures and chemical composition including proximal components, vitamins, minerals and bioactive compounds.

There were many variations within rye brans, and differences from wheat bran. Rye bran had less betaine (194-278 mg/100 g) than wheat brans (431-441 mg/100 g).

Kamal-Eldin et al (2009). "Physical, microscopic and chemical characterisation of industrial rye and wheat brans from the Nordic countries." Food Nutr Res 53 DOI: 10.3402/fnr.v53i0.1912.

Betaine and choline content of wheat fractions

This present study suggests that the wheat aleurone layer contains the greatest concentration of both betaine and choline (1553 and 210 mg/100 g of sample, respectively). The bran fraction contained 867 and 102 mg/100 g of sample of betaine and choline, respectively, while the flour fraction contained 23 mg/100 g of sample (betaine) and 28 mg/100 g of sample (choline). The betaine content for the bran was lower, and the choline content was higher compared to previous studies, although it is known that there is large variation in betaine and choline contents between wheat cultivars. The study further emphasizes the superior phytonutrient composition of the aleurone layer.

Graham et al (2009). "Analysis of Betaine and Choline Contents of Aleurone, Bran, and Flour Fractions of Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Using 1H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy." J Ag Food Chem 57(5): 1948-1951.

Dietary patterns, food groups, and nutrients as predictors of plasma choline and betaine

Higher plasma betaine was predicted by consumption of high-fiber bread, complex carbohydrates, fiber, folate, thiamine and total energy. Lower plasma betaine was correlated with high-fat dairy products and western dietary pattern (with a high loading for meat, pizza, sugar, and fat). Higher plasma choline was predicted by egg consumption and cholesterol intake.

Konstantinova et al (2008). "Dietary patterns, food groups, and nutrients as predictors of plasma choline and betaine in middle-aged and elderly men and women." Am J Clin Nutr 88(6): 1663-1669.

Antioxidants, Cereals and Betaine

Fardet (2008) "Fardet et al (2008). "Is the in vitro antioxidant potential of whole-grain cereals and cereal products well reflected in vivo?" Journal of Cereal Science 48(2): 258-76."

This paper suggests that betaine has long been neglected as a source of antioxidant from cereals.

Papers 2004-7:

Fardet et al (2007). "Whole-Grain and Refined Wheat Flours Show Distinct Metabolic Profiles in Rats as Assessed by a 1H NMR-Based Metabonomic Approach." J Nutr 137(4): 923-29.

Likes et al (2007). "The betaine and choline content of a whole wheat flour compared to other mill streams." J. Cereal Sci. 46(1): 93-5.

Price et al (2007). "Plasma uptake of methyl donors from wheat fractions." Proc Nutr Soc 66(S1): 114A.