Cytosol betaine decreases with a high fat diet

Liver and serum metabolites of obese and lean mice fed on high fat or normal diets were analyzed using ultraperformance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and partial least-squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA).

Obese and lean groups were clearly discriminated from each other on PLS-DA score plot and major metabolites contributing to the discrimination were assigned as lipid metabolites (fatty acids, phosphatidylcholines (PCs), and lysophosphatidylcholines (lysoPCs)), lipid metabolism intermediates (betaine, carnitine, and acylcarnitines), amino acids, acidic compounds, monosaccharides, and serotonin. A high-fat diet increased lipid metabolites but decreased lipid metabolism intermediates and the NAD/NADH ratio, indicating that abnormal lipid and energy metabolism induced by a high-fat diet resulted in fat accumulation via decreased beta-oxidation. In addition, this study revealed that the levels of many metabolites, including serotonin, betaine, pipecolic acid, and uric acid, were positively or negatively related to obesity-associated diseases.

On the basis of these metabolites, we proposed a metabolic pathway related to high-fat diet-induced obesity. These metabolites can be used to better understand obesity and related diseases induced by a hyperlipidic diet. Furthermore, the level changes of these metabolites can be used to assess the risk of obesity and the therapeutic effect of obesity management.

Kim et al (2010). "Metabolomic analysis of livers and serum from high-fat diet induced obese mice." J Proteome Res 10(2): 722-31.

Betaine should be combined fibrates for hyperlipidemia

Because most of the cardiac risk remains despite successful statin therapy there has been renewed interest in fibrate therapy for persisting hyperlipidaemia. Fibrate therapy lowers triglycerides but causes the urinary loss of betaine, which is an essential metabolite that is involved in osmoregulation, in methyl group metabolism, and which also affects lipid partitioning in the body. Loss of betaine is associated with an elevation of homocysteine and may compromise the potential benefits of fibrate therapy. However, betaine deficiency could be easily and inexpensively corrected by concurrent betaine supplementation. Clinical trials of combinations of betaine and fibrate, to complement statin therapy, are needed to determine the value of these agents in reducing the residual cardiovascular disease risk

Lever et al (2010). "Fibrates plus betaine: a winning combination?" N Z Med J 123(1324): 74-8.

Betaine protects the brain against alcohol and aspirin

Physicians recommend aspirin for prevention of heart attacks and stroke in people above the age of 40 years. In some cases, alcohol consumption accompanies aspirin intake. In this study, the in vitro effects of different doses of ethanol (50, 100, and 200 mM) and 100 μg/mL of aspirin and the possible protective role of betaine (0.5 and 1 mM) were investigated on rat cerebral synaptosomes.

Synaptosomally enriched fractions, derived from Sprague Dawley rat brains, were incubated with ethanol and aspirin so as to measure sialic acid (SA), nitric oxide levels, and adenosine deaminase (ADA) activities, which are known to be the markers of alcohol damage. When combined with aspirin, ethanol increased SA levels compared with the control group at all doses, resulting in loss of SA residue from synaptosomal membrane. Betaine (0.5 mM) decreased SA levels with respect to the ethanol (200 mM) plus aspirin group (p < .05), thereby preventing SA loss. Moreover, betaine reversed the destructive effects of ethanol by elevating reduced nitric oxide levels. Aspirin, when combined with all doses of ethanol, increased ADA activity, which is crucial for purine metabolism. ADA activities were also elevated in betaine-administered groups.

We propose that betaine is an effective compound in protecting the rat brain synaptosomes against ethanol and aspirin together.

Sogut and Kanbak (2010). "In vitro effects of ethanol with aspirin on rat brain synaptosomes: the potential protective role of betaine." Int J Neurosci 120(12): 774-83.

Betaine is an important component of whole grain health benefits

Epidemiological studies have clearly shown that whole-grain cereals can protect against obesity, diabetes, CVD and cancers. The specific effects of food structure (increased satiety, reduced transit time and glycaemic response), fibre (improved faecal bulking and satiety, viscosity and SCFA production, and/or reduced glycaemic response) and Mg (better glycaemic homeostasis through increased insulin secretion), together with the antioxidant and anti-carcinogenic properties of numerous bioactive compounds, especially those in the bran and germ (minerals, trace elements, vitamins, carotenoids, polyphenols and alkylresorcinols), are today well-recognised mechanisms in this protection.

Recent findings, the exhaustive listing of bioactive compounds found in whole-grain wheat, their content in whole-grain, bran and germ fractions and their estimated bioavailability, have led to new hypotheses. The involvement of polyphenols in cell signalling and gene regulation, and of sulfur compounds, lignin and phytic acid should be considered in antioxidant protection. Whole-grain wheat is also a rich source of methyl donors and lipotropes (methionine, betaine, choline, inositol and folates) that may be involved in cardiovascular and/or hepatic protection, lipid metabolism and DNA methylation. Potential protective effects of bound phenolic acids within the colon, of the B-complex vitamins on the nervous system and mental health, of oligosaccharides as prebiotics, of compounds associated with skeleton health, and of other compounds such as α-linolenic acid, policosanol, melatonin, phytosterols and para-aminobenzoic acid also deserve to be studied in more depth. Finally, benefits of nutrigenomics to study complex physiological effects of the ‘whole-grain package’, and the most promising ways for improving the nutritional quality of cereal products are discussed.

Fardet A. New hypotheses for the health-protective mechanisms of whole-grain cereals: what is beyond fibre? Nutrition Research Reviews. 2010;23(01):65-134.

Betaine improves lactation performance

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effects of betaine supplementation on rumen fermentation, lactation performance and plasma characteristics in dairy cows.

Twenty multiparous Holstein dairy cows (5978 kg body weight (BW), 885 days in milk (DIM) and average daily milk production of 2604 Latin square experiment. The treatments were: control (without betaine), low-betaine (LB), medium-betaine (MB) and high-betaine (HB) with 0, 50, 100 and 150 g supplemental anhydrous betaine/cow/day, respectively. Betaine was hand-mixed into the top one-third of the daily ration at feeding. Experimental periods were 30 days with 15 days of adaptation and 15 days of sampling. Dry matter (DM) intake was not affected with increasing the betaine supplementation. There were linear increases in milk yield and fat-corrected milk yield (corrected to 40 g fat/kg) and a linear and quadratic increase in milk fat concentration with increasing the betaine supplementation, whereas the proportion and yield of milk protein and lactose, and feed efficiency, were not affected. Ruminal pH and ammonia N linearly decreased, whereas total volatile fatty acid (VFA) concentration linearly and quadratically increased with increasing the betaine supplementation. The ratio of acetate to propionate (A:P) linearly increased from 353 as betaine supplementation increased. Digestibility of DM linearly increased, whereas digestibilities of organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and acid detergent fibre (ADF) in the total tract were quadratically increased with increasing the betaine supplementation. Plasma concentrations of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) and β-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA) were lower for betaine supplementation than for control, and were linearly decreased by betaine supplementation.

The results indicate that supplementation of mid-lactation dairy cow diets with betaine increased milk yield through increased feed digestion. Betaine supplementation may benefit lactation performance when methionine supply is limiting.

Wang et al (2010). "Effects of betaine supplementation on rumen fermentation, lactation performance, feed digestibilities and plasma characteristics in dairy cows." J. Agric. Sci. 148(4): 487-495.

Betaine supplementation improved cycling sprint power

This study examined the effect of betaine on cycling sprint performance.

Sixteen untrained subjects (7 females and 9 males) completed three sprint tests, each consisting of four 12 sec efforts against 5.5% of body weight as resistance; efforts were separated by 2.5 min of cycling at zero resistance. Test one established baseline; test two and three were preceded by daily consumption of 591 ml of a carbohydrate-electrolyte beverage as a placebo or a carbohydrate-electrolyte beverage containing 0.42% betaine. A double blind random order crossover design and a three-week washout between trials were used. Average and maximum peak and mean power were analyzed with one-way repeated measures ANOVA and, where indicated, a Student Newman–Keuls; α was set at 0.05.

Compared to baseline, betaine ingestion increased average peak power (6.4%, p < 0.001), max peak power (5.7%, p < 0.001), average mean power (5.4%, p = 0.004), and max mean power (4.4%, p = 0.004) for all subjects combined. Compared to placebo, betaine ingestion significantly increased average peak power (3.4%, p = 0.026), max peak power max (3.8%, p = 0.007), average mean power (3.3%, p = 0.034), and max mean power (3.5%, p = 0.011) for all subjects combined. There were no differences between the placebo and baseline trials.

One week of betaine ingestion improved cycling sprint power in untrained males and females.

Czapla R, Swensen T, and Craig SAS. Effect of betaine on cycling sprint power. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2010;7(Suppl 1):P23

Betaine supplementation improves abdominal fat traits and decreases transcription of lipogenenis genes

Experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of betaine supplementation on mRNA expression levels of lipogenesis genes and CpG methylation of lipoprotein lipase gene (LPL) in broilers.

From 22 days of age, 78 broilers were feed basal diet without betaine and basal diet supplemented with 0.1% betaine, respectively, and at 56 and 66 days of age, the traits of 15 chickens (7 males and 8 females) of each group were recorded and abdominal fat pads were collected. The mRNA expression levels of several lipogenesis gene were analyzed by semi-quantitative RT-PCR and real-time quantitative RT-PCR (qPCR), respectively. The CpG methylation profile at the promoter region of LPL gene in 66-day-old broilers was determined by bisulfite sequencing. The average daily gain and percent abdominal fat traits were slightly improved in 56-day-old and 66-day-old broilers after dietary supplementation of betaine to diet. After adding 0.1% betaine to diet, the mRNA levels of fatty acid synthase (FAS) and adipocyte-type fatty acid-binding protein genes in abdominal adipose were significantly decreased in 56-day-old broilers, and those of LPL and FAS genes in abdominal adipose were significantly decreased in 66-day-old broilers comparing with the control group (P < 0.05 and P < 0.001). Moreover, in 66-day-old broilers fed 0.1% betaine diet, a different CpG methylation pattern was observed: the CpG dinucleotides of 1st, 6th, 7th, 8th and from 10th to 50th were less methylated; however, those of 2nd, 5th and 9th were more heavily methylated.

The results suggest that transcription of some lipogenesis genes was decreased by betaine supplementation and betaine may decrease LPL mRNA expression by altering CpG methylation pattern on LPL promoter region.


Xing et al (2010). "Effect of dietary betaine supplementation on lipogenesis gene expression and CpG methylation of lipoprotein lipase gene in broilers." Mol Biol Rep 38(3): 1975-81.

A review on the clinical significance of betaine

Betaine is an essential osmolyte and source of methyl groups and comes from either the diet or by the oxidation of choline. Its metabolism methylates homocysteine to methionine, also producing N,N-dimethylglycine. Betaine insufficiency is associated with the metabolic syndrome, lipid disorders and diabetes, and may have a role in vascular and other diseases. Betaine is important in development, from the pre-implantation embryo to infancy. Betaine supplementation improves animal and poultry health, but the effect of long-term supplementation on humans is not known, though reports that it improves athletic performance will stimulate further studies. Subsets of the population that may benefit from betaine supplementation could be identified by the laboratory, in particular those who excessively lose betaine through the urine. Plasma betaine is highly individual, in women typically 20-60 [mu]mol/L and in men 25-75 [mu]mol/L. Plasma dimethylglycine is typically < 10 [mu]mol/L. Urine betaine excretion is minimal, even following a large betaine dose. It is constant, highly individual and normally < 35 mmol/mole creatinine. The preferred method of betaine measurement is by LC-MS/MS, which is rapid and capable of automation. Slower HPLC methods give comparable results. Proton NMR spectrometry is another option but caution is needed to avoid confusion with trimethylamine-N-oxide.

Lever and Slow (2010). "The clinical significance of betaine, an osmolyte with a key role in methyl group metabolism." Clinical Biochemistry 43(9): 732-744.

Ergogenic effects of betaine on strength and power

Twelve men completed two 14-day experimental trials separated by a 14-day washout period, in a balanced, randomized, double-blind, repeated measures, crossover design. Prior to and following 14 days of twice daily betaine (B) or placebo (P) supplementation, subjects completed two consecutive days (D1 and D2) of a standardized high intensity strength/power resistance exercise challenge (REC). Performance included bench, squat, and jump tests.

Following 14-days of B supplementation, D1 and D2 bench throw power and isometric bench press force were increased during REC compared to pre-supplementation values and corresponding P values. Compared to pre-supplementation, vertical jump power and isometric squat force increased on D1 and D2 following B supplementation. However, there were no differences in jump squat power or the number of bench press or squat repetitions.

Therefore, B supplementation increased power, force and maintenance of these measures in selected performance measures, and these were more apparent in the smaller upper-body muscle groups.

Lee et al (2010). "Ergogenic effects of betaine supplementation on strength and power performance." Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition 7(1): 27.

Betaine improves nutrient digestion

The study was conducted to investigate the effects of graded dietary inclusion levels of betaine on ileal and total tract nutrient digestibilities and intestinal bacterial metabolites in piglets.

A total of eight barrows with an average initial body weight of 7.9 kg were randomly allocated to one of the four assay diets with two pigs per treatment in four repeated measurement periods. The assay diets included a basal diet based on wheat, barley and soybean meal alone, or supplemented with a liquid betaine product at dietary levels of 1.5, 3.0, or 6.0 g betaine per kilogram diet (as-fed). Ileal digestibilities of dry matter and neutral detergent fibre increased both quadratically and linearly, and ileal digestibility of glycine increased linearly as dietary betaine level increased (p < 0.05). Furthermore, total tract digestibility of crude protein increased quadratically (p < 0.05) and total tract digestibilities of most amino acids tended to increase quadratically (p = 0.06 to p = 0.11) with increasing dietary betaine level. Moreover, there were linear increases in the concentrations of most bacterial metabolites which were significant p < 0.05 for ileal d-lactic acid and for faecal diaminopimelic acid.

The results demonstrate that dietary betaine supplementation stimulates bacterial fermentation of fibre in the small intestine and bacterial degradation of crude protein in the large intestine.

Ratriyanto et al (2010). "Effect of graded levels of dietary betaine on ileal and total tract nutrient digestibilities and intestinal bacterial metabolites in piglets." J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) 94(6): 788-96.

Metabolomic study with high fat diet

This study used 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to examine the metabolic profiles of plasma and urine from the low-density lipoprotein receptors (LDLR) knockout mice.

Consistent with previous studies, these mice developed hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis when fed a high-fat/cholesterol/cholate containing diet. In addition, multivariate statistical analysis of the metabolomic data highlighted significant differences in tricarboxylic acid cycle and fatty acid metabolism, as a result of high-fat/cholesterol diet feeding. The high-fat/cholesterol/cholate diet, LDL receptor gene deficiency, and the diet-genotype interaction caused a significant perturbation in choline metabolism, notably the choline oxidation pathway. Specifically, the loss in the LDL receptor caused a marked reduction in the urinary excretion of betaine and dimethylglycine, especially when the mice are fed a high fat/cholesterol/cholate diet.

These metabolic changes are comparable with those detected in ApoE knockout mice fed the same high-fat/cholesterol/cholate diet and may be useful for monitoring the onset of atherosclerosis across animal models.


Cheng et al (2010). "A metabolomic study of the LDL receptor null mouse fed a high-fat diet reveals profound perturbations in choline metabolism that are shared with ApoE null mice." Physiol. Genomics 41: 224-231.

Betaine improves adipose function in high fat diet

This study examined the effects of betaine supplementation on hepatic fat accumulation and injury in mice fed high-fat diet and evaluated mechanisms underlying its hepatoprotective effects.

Male C57BL/6 mice weighing 25 {+/-} 0.5 g (means {+/-} SE) were divided into four groups (8 mice per group) and started on one of four treatments: control diet (Con), control diet supplemented with betaine (BT), high-fat diet (HF), and high-fat diet supplemented with betaine (HB). Betaine was supplemented in the drinking water at a concentration of 1% (wt/vol) (anhydrous).

Long-term high-fat feeding caused NAFLD in mice, which was manifested by excessive neutral fat accumulation in the liver and elevated plasma ALT levels. Betaine supplementation alleviated hepatic pathological changes, which were concomitant with attenuated insulin resistance as shown by improved HOMA-IR values and glucose tolerance test (GTT), and corrected abnormal adipokine (adiponectin, resistin, and leptin) productions. In specific, betaine supplementation enhanced insulin sensitivity in adipose tissue as shown by improved ERK1/2 and Akt activations. In adipocytes freshly isolated from mice fed high-fat diet, pretreatment of betaine enhanced insulin signaling pathway and improved adipokine productions. Further investigation using whole liver tissues revealed that betaine supplementation alleviated high-fat diet induced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response in adipose tissue as shown by attenuated GRP78/CHOP protein abundance and JNK activation.

The findings suggest that betaine might serve as a safe and efficacious therapeutic tool for NAFLD by improving adipose tissue function.

Wang et al (2010). "Betaine Improved Adipose Tissue Function in Mice Fed High-Fat Diet: A Mechanism for Hepatoprotective Effect of Betaine in Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease." Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 298: G634-G642

Determinants of total homocysteine concentration

This study assessed the association between choline and betaine intakes and fasting and post-methionine-load homocysteine concentrations using the USDA revised food-composition tables and evaluated whether the associations varied by folic acid fortification periods in 1325 male and 1407 female participants in the sixth examination (1995-1998) of the Framingham Offspring Study.

A higher choline-plus-betaine intake was associated with lower concentrations of post-methionine-load homocysteine. They found an inverse association between choline-plus-betaine intake and fasting homocysteine concentrations. When stratified by plasma folate and vitamin B-12 concentrations, the inverse association was limited to participants with low plasma folate or vitamin B-12 concentrations. In the postfortification period, the inverse association between choline-plus-betaine intake and either fasting or post-methionine-load homocysteine was no longer present.

Choline and betaine intakes were associated with both fasting and post-methionine-load total homocysteine concentrations, especially in participants with low folate and vitamin B-12 status. The inverse association between choline and betaine intakes and homocysteine concentrations was no longer present in the postfortification period.

Lee et al (2010). "Are dietary choline and betaine intakes determinants of total homocysteine concentration?" Am J Clin Nutr 91(5) 1303-10

Colorectal cancer

This study prospectively examined the associations between dietary choline and betaine intake and risk of colorectal cancer in men in the Health Professionals Follow-up Study. They did not find any statistically significant associations between choline intake or betaine intake and risk of colorectal cancer. Comparing the top quintile with bottom quintile, multivariate relative risks (95% confidence interval) were 0.97 (0.79-1.20; Ptrend = 0.87) for choline intake and 0.94 (0.77-1.16; Ptrend = 0.79) for betaine intake.

Lee et al (2010). "Choline and Betaine Intake and the Risk of Colorectal Cancer in Men." Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention 19(3):1-4

Mechanism for liver protection

This study tested whether betaine reduces hepatic Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) response to ethanol feeding.

Forty-eight female Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into four groups as control, model, low and high dose betaine groups. Except control group, all rats were fed with high fat-containing diet plus ethanol and fish oil gavages for 8 wk. Betaine was administered intragastrically after exposure of ethanol for 4 wk. The changes of liver histology were examined. Compared with control group, rats of model group developed marked liver injury, accompanied by an increase of ALT, AST, endotoxin, TNF-alpha, IFN-gamma and IL-18. Compared with the model group, betaine feeding resulted in significant decreases of all these markers. Betaine also improved liver steatosis. The expression of TLR4 mRNA and protein was markedly induced in the liver after chronic ethanol consumption, but betaine significantly lowered these expression levels. There was a statistical difference of TLR4 mRNA and protein expression between high- and low-dose betaine groups.

Betaine can prevent alcohol-induced liver injury effectively and improve liver function. The expression of TLR4 increases significantly in ethanol-fed rats and betaine administration can inhibit TLR4 expression.

Shi et al (2010). "Betaine inhibits Toll-like receptor 4 expression in rats with ethanol-induced liver injury." World J Gastroenterol 16(7): 897-903.

Prevention of liver injury

Male C57BL/6J mice were administered a control high fat diet, or one enriched in methyl donors (betaine and SAM) with or without alcohol for 4 wks using the enteral alcohol feeding model. As expected, attenuation of alcohol-induced liver injury (ALI)and an increase in GSH:GSSG ratio were achieved with methyl donor supplementation. Interestingly, methyl donors led to a 35% increase in blood alcohol elimination rate and, while there was no effect on alcohol metabolism in the stomach, a profound effect on liver alcohol metabolism was observed. The catalase-dependent pathway of alcohol metabolism was induced, yet the increase of CYP2E1 activity by alcohol was blunted which may be mitigating production of oxidants. Additional factors contributing to the protective effects of methyl donors in ALI were increased activity of low- and high-K(m) aldehyde dehydrogenases leading to lower hepatic acetaldehyde, maintenance of the efficient mitochondrial energy metabolism, and promotion of peroxisomal beta-oxidation.

Profound changes in alcohol metabolism represent additional important mechanism of the protective effect of methyl donors in ALI.

Powell et al (2010). "Mechanism for Prevention of Alcohol-Induced Liver Injury by Dietary Methyl Donors." Toxicol Sci. 115(1): 131-139

Betaine content of cereal products

LC-MS/MS analysis was used to analyze 47 plasma samples, 32 cereal flours and cereal fractions, and 51 cereal products.

Whole-grain wheat and rye flours, and products based on these were the best whole cereal sources of betaine (747-1508 mug/g) and to a lesser extent choline (76-159 mug/g), while the bran fraction contained the highest concentrations of betaine and free-choline (2350-2899 mug/g and 366-384 mug/g respectively). Refined wheat flour and products contained lower concentrations, while rice and maize contained only very low and no detectable amounts of betaine respectively (0-10 mug/g), and low amounts of free-choline (<31 mug/g).

These results were mirrored in cereal products analyzed, with whole-grain wheat or rye-based cereal products having the highest concentrations of the two metabolites. Plasma concentrations for betaine and free-choline in a group of 47 subjects ranged from 15.2-66.3 and 9.8-18.5 mumol/L respectively, within the range of previous reports. This LC-MS/MS method can be used to rapidly and sensitively quantify betaine and free-choline in plasma and cereal products.

Whole-grain cereal products and products containing cereal bran appear to be excellent dietary sources of betaine and free-choline.

Bruce et al (2010). "Quantitative Measurement of Betaine and Free Choline in Plasma, Cereals and Cereal Products by Isotope Dilution LC-MS/MS." J Agric Food Chem. Epub Jan 26

Protective effect of betaine on the brain

This study evaluated the cytotoxic effects of chronic ethanol consumption on brain cerebral synaptosomes and preventive role of betaine as a methyl donor and S-adenosylmethionine precursor.

24 male Wistar rats were divided into three groups: control, ethanol (8 g/kg/day) and ethanol plus betaine(0.5% w/v) group. Animals were fed 60 ml/diet per day for two months, then sacrificed. Malondialdehyde (MDA), protein carbonyl contents and adenosine deaminase (ADA) activities were determined in synaptosomal/mitochondrial enriched fraction isolated from rat cerebral cortexes. When compared to controls, ethanol containing diet significantly increased MDA levels (P < 0.05), also increased protein carbonyl levels and adenosine deaminase activities. But these were not statistically significant (P > 0.05). However, adding betaine to ethanol containing diet caused a significant decrease in MDA, protein carbonyl levels and adenosine deaminase activities (P < 0.05).

These results indicate that betaine may appear as a protective nutritional agent against cytotoxic brain damage induced by chronic ethanol consumption.

Kanbak et al (2008). "Effects of chronic ethanol consumption on brain synaptosomes and protective role of betaine." Neurochem Res 33(3): 539-44.

Protective effect of betaine on the pancreas

This study investigated the cytotoxic effects of chronic ethanol consumption on the pancreatic tissue and a possible cytoprotective effect of betaine.

Twenty-four male Wistar rats were divided into control, ethanol, and ethanol+betaine groups. Prior to sacrifice, all groups were fed 60 mL/diet per day for two months. Rats in the ethanol group were fed with ethanol 8 g/kg/day. The ethanol+betaine groups were fed ethanol plus betaine (0.5 % w/v). Malondialdehyde levels and adenosine deaminase, superoxide dismutase, and xanthine oxidase activities were determined in pancreatic tissues of rats. Compared to control group, MDA levels increased significantly in the ethanol group (p<0.05). MDA levels in the ethanol+betaine group were significantly decreased compared to the ethanol group (p<0.05). ADA activity in the ethanol+betaine group decreased significantly when compared to the ethanol group (p<0.05). XO activities in ethanol-fed rats were decreased significantly compared to the control group (p<0.05). XO activity in the betaine group was increased significantly (p<0.05) compared to the ethanol group. SOD activity in the ethanol group decreased significantly compared to control group (p<0.001). SOD activity in the ethanol+betaine group decreased significantly (p<0.05) compared to the control group.

Betaine, as a nutritional methylating agent, may be effective against ethanol-mediated oxidative stress in pancreatic tissue.

Kanbak et al (2009). "Betaine (Trimethylglycine) as a nutritional agent prevents oxidative stress after chronic ethanol consumption in pancreatic tissue of rats." Int J Vitam Nutr Res 79(2): 79-86.

Breast cancer risk

This study examined the intake of choline and betaine and breast cancer risk among 74, 584 post-menopausal women in the Nurses’ Health Study. Overall, choline (mean±s.d.; 326±61 mg per day) and betaine (104±33 mg per day) intake was not associated with a reduced risk of post-menopausal breast cancer.

Cho E, Holmes MD, Hankinson SE, Willett WC: Choline and betaine intake and risk of breast cancer among post-menopausal women. Br J Cancer 2010:Epub Jan 2010.